MIPS Architecture and Assembly Language

Architecture Overview

Data Types and Literals

Data types:

byte, halfword (2 bytes), word (4 bytes)
a character requires 1 byte of storage
an integer requires 1 word (4 bytes) of storage

Literals:

numbers entered as is ex 4
characters enclosed in single quotes ex 'b'
strings enclosed in double quotes ex "A string"

Registers

32 general-purpose registers
register preceded by $ in assembly language instruction
two formats for addressing:
- using register number ex $0 through $31
- using equivalent names ex $t1, $sp
register use conventions
- $t0 - $t9 ( = $8 - $15, $24, $25) are general use registers; need not be preserved across procedure calls
- $s0 - $s7 ( = $16 - $23) are general use registers; should be preserved across procedure calls
- $sp ( = $29) is stack pointer
- $fp ( = $30) is frame pointer
- $ra ( = $31) is return address storage for subroutine call
- $a0 - $a3 ( = $4 - $7) are used to pass arguments to subroutines
- $v0, $v1 ( = $2, $3) are used to hold return values from subroutine
special registers Lo and Hi used to store result of multiplication and division
- not directly addressable; contents accessed with special instruction mfhi ("move from Hi") and mflo ("move from Lo")
stack grows from high memory to low memory

MIPS Assembly Language Program Structure

just plain text file with data declarations, program code (name of file should end in suffix .s to be used with SPIM simulator)
data declaration section followed by program code section

Data Declarations

placed in section of program identified with assembler directive .data
declares variable names used in program; storage allocated in main memory (RAM)

Code

placed in section of text identified with assembler directive .text
contains program code (instructions)
starting point for code execution given label main:
ending point of main code should use exit system call (see below under System Calls)

Comments

anything following # on a line
# This stuff would be considered a comment

ex:		A template for a MIPS assembly language program


# Comment giving name of program and description of function
# Template.s
# Bare-bones outline of MIPS assembly language program


	.data
# variable declarations here
# ...


	.text

main:			# indicates start of code (first instruction to execute)
# remainder of program code here
# ...
# ...

Data Declarations

format for declarations:

name:	storage_type	value(s)

create storage for variable of specified type with given name and specified value
value(s) usually gives initial value(s); for storage type .space, gives number of spaces to be allocated

Note: labels always followed by colon ( : )

example

var1:		.word	3		# create a single integer variable with initial value 3
array1:		.byte	'a','b'		# create a 2-element character array with elements initialized
					#   to  a  and  b
array2:		.space	40		# allocate 40 consecutive bytes, with storage uninitialized
					#   could be used as a 40-element character array, or a
					#   10-element integer array; a comment should indicate which!

Instructions

Load / Store Instructions

RAM access only allowed with load and store instructions
all other instructions use register operands

load:

	lw	register_destination, RAM_source

copy word (4 bytes) at source RAM location to destination register
```
	lb	register_destination, RAM_source
```
copy byte at source RAM location to low-order byte of destination register, and sign-extend to higher-order bytes

store word:

	sw	register_source, RAM_destination

store word in source register into RAM destination
```
	sb	register_source, RAM_destination
```
store byte (low-order) in source register into RAM destination

load immediate:

	li	register_destination, value

load immediate value into destination register

example

		.data
var1:		.word	23		# declare storage for var1; initial value is 23

		.text
__start:
		lw	$t0, var1	# load contents of RAM location into register $t0:  $t0 = var1
		li	$t1, 5		#  $t1 = 5   ("load immediate")
		sw	$t1, var1	# store contents of register $t1 into RAM:  var1 = $t1
		done

Indirect and Based Addressing

used only with load and store instructions

load address:

	la	$t0, var1

copy RAM address of var1 (presumably a label defined in the program) into register $t0

indirect addressing:

	lw	$t2, ($t0)

load word at RAM address contained in $t0 into $t2
```
	sw	$t2, ($t0)
```
store word in register $t2 into RAM at address contained in $t0

based or indexed addressing:

	lw	$t2, 4($t0)

load word at RAM address ($t0+4) into register $t2
"4" gives offset from address in register $t0
```
	sw	$t2, -12($t0)
```
store word in register $t2 into RAM at address ($t0 - 12)
negative offsets are fine

arrays; access elements as offset from base address
stacks; easy to access elements at offset from stack pointer or frame pointer

example

		.data
array1:		.space	12		#  declare 12 bytes of storage to hold array of 3 integers

		.text
__start:	la	$t0, array1	#  load base address of array into register $t0
		li	$t1, 5		#  $t1 = 5   ("load immediate")
		sw	$t1, ($t0)	#  first array element set to 5; indirect addressing
		li	$t1, 13		#   $t1 = 13
		sw	$t1, 4($t0)	#  second array element set to 13
		li	$t1, -7		#   $t1 = -7
		sw	$t1, 8($t0)	#  third array element set to -7
		done

Arithmetic Instructions

most use 3 operands
all operands are registers; no RAM or indirect addressing
operand size is word (4 bytes)

		add	$t0,$t1,$t2	#  $t0 = $t1 + $t2;   add as signed (2's complement) integers
		sub	$t2,$t3,$t4	#  $t2 = $t3 Ð $t4
		addi	$t2,$t3, 5	#  $t2 = $t3 + 5;   "add immediate" (no sub immediate)
		addu	$t1,$t6,$t7	#  $t1 = $t6 + $t7;   add as unsigned integers
		subu	$t1,$t6,$t7	#  $t1 = $t6 + $t7;   subtract as unsigned integers

		mult	$t3,$t4		#  multiply 32-bit quantities in $t3 and $t4, and store 64-bit
					#  result in special registers Lo and Hi:  (Hi,Lo) = $t3 * $t4
		div	$t5,$t6		#  Lo = $t5 / $t6   (integer quotient)
					#  Hi = $t5 mod $t6   (remainder)
		mfhi	$t0		#  move quantity in special register Hi to $t0:   $t0 = Hi
		mflo	$t1		#  move quantity in special register Lo to $t1:   $t1 = Lo
					#  used to get at result of product or quotient

		move	$t2,$t3		#  $t2 = $t3

Control Structures

Branches

comparison for conditional branches is built into instruction

		b	target			#  unconditional branch to program label target
		beq	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 = $t1
		blt	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 < $t1
		ble	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 <= $t1
		bgt	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 > $t1
		bge	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 >= $t1
		bne	$t0,$t1,target		#  branch to target if  $t0 <> $t1

Jumps

		j	target		#  unconditional jump to program label target
		jr	$t3		#  jump to address contained in $t3 ("jump register")

Subroutine Calls

subroutine call: "jump and link" instruction

	jal	sub_label	#  "jump and link"

copy program counter (return address) to register $ra (return address register)
jump to program statement at sub_label

subroutine return: "jump register" instruction

	jr	$ra	#  "jump register"

jump to return address in $ra (stored by jal instruction)

Note: return address stored in register $ra; if subroutine will call other subroutines, or is recursive, return address should be copied from $ra onto stack to preserve it, since jal always places return address in this register and hence will overwrite previous value

System Calls and I/O (SPIM Simulator)

used to read or print values or strings from input/output window, and indicate program end
use syscall operating system routine call
- first supply appropriate values in registers $v0 and $a0-$a1
- result value (if any) returned in register $v0

ex Print out integer value contained in register $t2 li $v0, 1 # load appropriate system call code into register $v0; # code for printing integer is 1 move $a0, $t2 # move integer to be printed into $a0: $a0 = $t2 syscall # call operating system to perform operation ex Read integer value, store in RAM location with label int_value (presumably declared in data section) li $v0, 5 # load appropriate system call code into register $v0; # code for reading integer is 5 syscall # call operating system to perform operation sw $v0, int_value # value read from keyboard returned in register $v0; # store this in desired location ex Print out string (useful for prompts) .data string1 .asciiz "Print this.\n" # declaration for string variable .text main: li $v0, 4 # load appropriate system call code into register $v0; # code for printing string is 4 la $a0, string1 # load address of string to be printed into $a0 syscall # call operating system to perform print operation Note:

string must be implemented as array of characters, terminated by null (\0)
data type declaration .asciiz automatically null-terminates string

Note: To indicate end of program, use exit system call; thus last lines of program should be:

		li	$v0, 10		# system call code for exit = 10
		syscall			# call operating system

Table of System Call Codes and Arguments
(from SPIM S20: A MIPS R2000 Simulator, James J. Larus, University of Wisconsin-Madison)

Service System Call Code Arguments Result

print integer 1 $a0 = value (none)

print float 2 $f12 = float value (none)

print double 3 $f12 = double value (none)

print string 4 $a0 = address of string (none)

read integer 5 (none) $v0 = value read

read float 6 (none) $f0 = value read

read double 7 (none) $f0 = value read

read string 8 $a0 = address where string to be stored
$a1 = number of characters to read + 1 (none)

memory allocation 9 $a0 = number of bytes of storage desired $v0 = address of block

exit (end of program) 10 (none) (none)

Examples

Example 1

# Compute the value of the sum     1*2 + 2*3 + 3*4 + ... + 10*11,   and store in register $t1

		.data				# variable declaration section

out_string:	.asciiz	"The result is:\n"	# declares a null-terminated string, to "prettify" output

		.text	
	
main:						# indicates start of code
		li	$t0, 1			# $t0 will be a counter; initialize to 1
		li	$t1, 0			# $t1 will hold the sum
		li	$t2, 10			# $t2 will hold loop limit

loop_top:	bgt	$t0,$t2,loop_end	# exit loop if  $t0 > 10
		addi	$t3,$t0,1		# $t3 = $t0 + 1
		mult	$t0,$t3			# special register  Lo = $t0 * $t3
						#  (don't need Hi since values are small)
		mflo	$t3			# $t3 = Lo (= $t0 * $t3)
		add	$t1,$t1,$t3		# $t1 = $t1 + $t3
		addi	$t0, 1			# increment counter
		b	loop_top		# branch to loop_top
	
loop_end:	# print out the result string
		li	$v0, 4			# system call code for printing string = 4
		la	$a0, out_string		# load address of string to be printed into $a0
		syscall				# call operating system to perform print operation

		# print out integer value in $t1
		li	$v0, 1			# system call code for printing integer = 1
		move	$a0, $t1		# move integer to be printed into $a0:  $a0 = $t1
		syscall				# call operating system to perform print
		
		# exit program
		li	$v0, 10			# system call code for exit = 10
		syscall				# call operating system

		# blank line at end to keep SPIM happy!

Example 2

# Code with subroutine to compute Fibonacci number recursively
# Uses system stack


		.data
in_string:	.asciiz		"Input a positive integer:\n\n"
out_string:	.asciiz		"The Fibonacci number is:\n\n"


		.text
main:
	# print out prompt
		li	$v0, 4			# system call code for printing string = 4
		la	$a0, in_string		# load address of string to be printed into $a0
		syscall				# call operating system to perform print operation

	# read integer into $s0
		li	$v0, 5			# system call code for read integer = 5
		syscall				# call operating system
		move	$s0, $v0		# value read from keyboard returned in register $v0; transfer to $s0

		sw	$s0,($sp)		# push argument for Fib on stack
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		jal	Fib			# jump to subroutine
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
		lw	$s1,($sp)		#   and pop result from stack
		
	# print out prompt
		li	$v0, 4			# system call code for printing string = 4
		la	$a0, in_string		# load address of string to be printed into $a0
		syscall				# call operating system

	# print out result (stored in $s1)
		li	$v0, 1			# system call code for printing integer = 1
		move	$a0, $s1		# move integer to be printed into $a0:  $a0 = $s1
		syscall				# call operating system to perform print

	# exit program
		li	$v0, 10			# system call code for exit = 10
		syscall				# call operating system

	# blank line at end to keep SPIM happy!


##################################################################################
# Fibonacci subroutine
# input:  integer n, on stack
# output: Fib(n), nth Fibonacci number
# description: recursively computes   Fib(n)  =  Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2),  Fib(1) = Fib(2) = 1.
# uses: $t0, $t1
##################################################################################


Fib:
						# procedure prologue:
		sw	$ra,($sp)		# save return address on stack, since recursive,
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		sw	$fp,($sp)		# save previous frame pointer on stack
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		add	$fp,$sp,12		# set frame pointer to point at base of stack frame

		lw	$t0,($fp)		# copy argument to $t0:  $t0 = n
		li	$t1, 2	
		bgt	$t0,$t1,do_recurse	# if argument n >= 2, branch to recursive sequence
		li	$t0, 1			#   else set result to 1 (base cases  n = 1 and  n = 2)
		b	epilogue		# branch to end

do_recurse:	addi	$t0,$t0,-1		# $t0 = n-1
		sw	$t0,($sp)		# push argument n-1 on stack
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		jal	Fib			# call Fibonacci with argument n-1
						# leave result on stack for now
		lw	$t0,($fp)		# re-copy argument to $t0:  $t0 = n
		addi	$t0,$t0,-2		# $t0 = n-2
		sw	$t0,($sp)		# push argument n-2 on stack
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		jal	Fib			# call Fibonacci with argument n-2
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
		lw	$t0,($sp)		#   and pop result of Fib(n-2) from stack into $t0
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
		lw	$t1,($sp)		#   and pop result of Fib(n-1) from stack into $t1
		add	$t0,$t0,$t1		# $t0 = Fib(n-2) + Fib(n-1); have result

epilogue:					# procedure epilogue: $t0 holds result
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
		lw	$fp,($sp)		#   and pop saved frame pointer into $fp
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
		lw	$ra,($sp)		#   and pop return address into $ra
		addi	$sp,$sp,4		# increment stack pointer
						#   to pop argument (n) from stack (discard)
		sw	$t0,($sp)		# push result onto stack
		addi	$sp,$sp,-4		#   and decrement stack pointer
		jr	$ra			# return to caller

##################################################################################
# end of Fibonacci
##################################################################################

Comments? To send e-mail, click on the link below:
jsevy@cs.drexel.edu

Service	System Call Code	Arguments	Result
print integer	1	$a0 = value	(none)
print float	2	$f12 = float value	(none)
print double	3	$f12 = double value	(none)
print string	4	$a0 = address of string	(none)
read integer	5	(none)	$v0 = value read
read float	6	(none)	$f0 = value read
read double	7	(none)	$f0 = value read
read string	8	$a0 = address where string to be stored $a1 = number of characters to read + 1	(none)
memory allocation	9	$a0 = number of bytes of storage desired	$v0 = address of block
exit (end of program)	10	(none)	(none)